Socio-Economic Model Development for Adaptation and Mitigation Strategy to Climate Change through ICT Implementation

The Southeast Asia region, including Indonesia and Malaysia, is an area that is still vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The phenomenon of climate change is rapidly becoming an issue whose impact is being felt in wider society today. Adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change, developing socio-economic models, and ICT implementation are the main issues that need to be studied in this research. However, appropriate and practical strategies for climate change adaptation and mitigation are still very complicated problems when linked to the development of socio-economic models and the implementation of ICT. This research aims to empirically test the influence of socio-economic model development on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy through ICT implementation. This empirical study used a quantitative approach, and it was supported by several kinds of data sources, including online surveys and data from literature reviews. Statistical processing of empirical data using smartPLS software. The main research findings reveal that ICT implementation has a significant role in mediating the influence of socio-economic model development on adaptation and mitigation strategy for climate change. However, other findings further reveal that ICT implementation is not purely moderate but has the potential to strengthen the influence of socio-economic model development on adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change. The research findings will significantly contribute to stakeholders and related parties involved in climate change issues at the national and international levels, especially in improving adaptation and mitigation strategies to climate change based on socio-economic model development through ICT implementation.

Introduction

Indonesia, Malaysia, and several other countries in the Southeast Asia region are still vulnerable to climate change’s impacts. Not only is climate change the biggest environmental concern in South Asia but it is also expected to have tremendous social and economic repercussions this century (Swami & Verma, 2023). These phenomena demonstrate how difficult it is for Southeast Asian nations to address the consequences of climate change, highlighting the urgency of taking mitigation and adaptation measures seriously to lower risks and negative effects. Being one of the regions most vulnerable to climate change throughout the world, Southeast Asia is faced with increasingly frequent and increasingly devastating extreme events weather events such as typhoons and droughts. Several significant climate change phenomena in Southeast Asian countries include sea level rise, drought and flooding, global warming, damage to ecosystems, changing rain patterns, decreased water quality and availability, and damage to coral reefs. These phenomena show that Southeast Asian countries have big challenges in facing the impacts of climate change, and mitigation and adaptation efforts need to be taken seriously to reduce the risks and impacts. Climate change, a phenomenon driven by anthropogenic activities, has fast become one of the most pressing issues of our time (Onunkaet al., 2023). In the long term, climate change threatens ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural habitats around the world (Namkhanet al., 2022). These physical changes do not occur just for a moment but over a long period of time. Climate Change issues have been labeled as one of the “greatest challenges” faced by humanity in the 21st century. It involves a combination of economic, environmental, social, and moral issues (Omaret al., 2020).

Climate change is one of the most significant environmental issues that impacts the world’s natural ecosystems (Dhanaiet al., 2014). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2023, climate change is more likely to be considered an urgent problem if it is related to economic problems (Asadet al., 2023). The United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNCCC) states that climate change has become one of the defining environmental challenges of this generation, and indeed the world is now at a crossroads. Furthermore, climate change is either directly or indirectly caused by all human activities (UNCC, 2020). Climate change, globally, has indications such as global warming and rising greenhouse gas emissions, increasingly extreme weather or climate change, and frequently changing rainfall patterns.

The impact of climate change, according to the United Nations in Climate Action, refers to the impact caused by long-term changes in global temperature and erratic weather patterns (Dhanaiet al., 2014). These impacts are interrelated and can exacerbate existing social and economic problems, such as conditions for soil drought, floods and landslides, rising sea levels, a higher air temperature, and damage to buildings and infrastructure.

There are efforts to increase the number of activities to remove or minimize greenhouse gas emissions. Adopting renewable energy sources, using energy efficiently, implementing efficient technology, recycling and reusing resources, cutting waste, afforestation, and intelligent mobility are all parts of mitigation (Bekarooet al., 2016). However, adaptation to climate change refers to changing behavior in a way that lessens the vulnerability of human and natural systems to the real or potential effects of climate change. Building the resilience of target groups, communities, habitats, and ecosystems can help achieve adaptation by helping them get ready for changing climatic and environmental conditions. Through adaptation, humanity will be able to withstand more frequent and severe heatwaves, rising sea levels, temperature increases, irregular and unpredictable rainfall, landslides, flooding, and glacier melting. A good brief policy to encourage ICT implementation must be the basis for mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change (Ajwang & Nambiro, 2022).

Literatur Review

Strategy of Adaptation and Mitigation to Climate Change

The strategy of climate change adaptation and mitigation are efforts to deal with climate change, increasing system resilience in society to reduce the risk of dangerous climate change. According to (Purwantoet al., 2012), Adaptation strategies are actions to adjust natural and social systems to face the negative impacts of climate change. Meanwhile, the Climate Change Mitigation Strategy refers to policies and actions aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions to prevent their entry into the atmosphere, which are implemented at the international, national, and local levels to combat climate change. Adapting to this new climate era is important for the continued existence of life on the planet. Moreover, mitigating the effects of climate change is crucial for sustainable development. According to Tunji-Olayeniet al. (2019), the study offers a conceptual framework for strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate change, as well as an analysis of the constraints faced by developing nations (Fig. 1). Next, adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change: using green energy, applying recyclable and sustainable building materials, improving high-rise and living building elements, efforts to design creative construction techniques, and the sustainable disposal and recycling of urban waste.

Fig. 1. Magnetization as a function of applied field (Tunji-Olayeniet al., 2019).

Socio-Economic Model Development

Socio-economic model development is an approach that combines various social and economic factors to analyze, understand, and predict the behavior of systems in society. These models are used to design policies, make decisions, and solve complex problems in areas such as economics, environment, and social welfare (Petrov, 2020). Developing effective socio-economic models requires interdisciplinary collaboration, reliable data, and a holistic approach. By understanding and utilizing this model, policymakers can make better and more sustainable decisions for society and the environment. In Southeast Asia and South Asia region context, climate change is not only the biggest threat to the region’s environment but is also an extraordinary social and economic problem this century (Swami & Verma, 2023). The socio-economic development model includes practices that describe the most commonly carried out activities, which are indicated in terms of government, environment, education, and health care (Qureshi, 2005). The development of this socioeconomic model will have an impact on how emerging nations address climate change over the course of the next ten years (Adom, 2024). In South Asian emerging nations like Pakistan, the effects of climate change on socio-economic development are particularly severe (Afzaalet al., 2024). Even if there is a concern about the effects of climate change on agricultural productivity, it is an environmental challenge that has the greatest influence on the natural resources, agricultural, and economic sectors (Febriandika & Rahayu, 2021). Bearing in mind that the development of social and economic models is key in studies and practices related to adaptation and mitigation for climate change, this study follows the definition of socio-economic development, considered as the improvement of social systems in society as well as the economic growth of a country. The social and economic development model that follows, which is depicted in Fig. 2, summarizes the ideas that have been discussed thus far.

Fig. 2. Socio-economic model development (Qureshi, 2005).

Fig. 2 illustrates the four main domains where social development efforts are most common: education, healthcare, government, and the environment. This development concept has an additional dynamic perspective and can be examined as a system product of human activity thanks to the social perspective on sustainable development. This viewpoint has had the biggest impact on development practice since it is actually more in line with reality. The utilization of knowledge and experience for innovation, the sourcing of raw materials, goods, and services required for manufacturing, and funding such as loans, aid, and/or trade agreements are considered ways in which economic development aids development. These can influence healthcare and education policies, as well as public policy. The development of a socio-economic modeling framework functions well to deal with obstacles resulting from adaptation or mitigation that consider strategies for how climate change will occur, experienced according to the frequency and magnitude of impacts, as well as unclear causes and effects. about everyday events in society (Patelet al., 2024).

ICT Implementation

ICT implementation has been promoted as part of the International Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) dedication to assisting in the fight against climate change (Ajwang & Nambiro, 2022). This is due to the fact that ICT adoption creates new avenues for modeling and forecasting climate change as well as facilitating the sharing of knowledge and information about it. According to Ajwang and Nambiro (2022), ICT has significant potential in its implementation to influence climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in three ways, namely (1) ICT can lower emissions and enable energy efficiency; (2) ICT can lower emissions and enable energy efficiency; and (3) ICT can help mitigate the global impact of climate change by using technology to track global meteorological and environmental conditions. The ICT sector can reduce emissions using more energy-efficient equipment and networks, such as green and cloud computing technology. Much attention has been paid to the potential of ICT in reducing Green House Gas (GHG) emissions, increasing energy efficiency and security by investing in sustainability, as well as its contribution to e-waste and an increase in GHG emissions associated with ICT’s energy use (Grunfeld & Houghton, 2013). Several cases highlight the effects of ICT implementation on social and economic development if implemented appropriately to support local needs. This socio-economic model provides a foundational framework for studying the impact of modifications or interventions, including the development or adoption of IT. It complements current models by providing a comprehensive, worldwide viewpoint on ICT implementations. This process model’s ramifications include making it possible to use the impacts of IT on social and economic development to guide practice and study. The model of ICT implementation is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. ICT implementation (Qureshi, 2005).

The impact of this ICT implementation model shows that social and economic development activities can benefit from the application of ICT, including better access to information and expertise, increased competitiveness and access to markets (including global markets), increased learning and workforce productivity, and related to poverty reduction. The role of ICT implementation in environmental management is becoming increasingly important due to its wide use in various environmental fields such as for example in weather forecasting and climate change (Vadell, 2019).

The issues and problems that are the main topic of discussion in this study are how to develop climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies based on the development of socio-economic models and through the implementation of ICT, which is the main urgency of this research. The urgency of this research is the main reason why studies related to climate change are most important to consider. Indonesia, which is in the Southeast Asia region, is still very vulnerable to climate change, which is sometimes very extreme. This is stated by Marquardtet al. (2021), who states that Indonesia is among Southeast Asia’s most vulnerable regions to climate change. Typhoons and droughts are becoming more common and damaging in Southeast Asia.

Several researchers and academics have previously conducted studies related to the socio-economic model development, ICT implementation, and adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change. Rublevet al. (2021) stated that the socio-economic model is a sustainable development that can relate to the problem of changes in sustainability and the social environment in a specific location. In their study, Destaw and Fenta (2021) discuss understanding rural farmers’ adaptation strategies to the adverse impacts of climate change and the factors that determine their decisions. One of the results of their research concluded that the level of education, which is part of socio-economic development, has a significant effect on the choice of adaptation strategies to climate change. Ajwang and Nambiro (2022) regard their study aims to find out how ICT can be implemented in overcoming climate change and find ways to improve adaptation and mitigation measures for climate change. Based on their research, innovation through ICT implementation is an effective way to support climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. Research by Onunkaet al. (2023) seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis of various aspects of the role of ICT implementation in climate change adaptation and mitigation. Their study aims to evaluate the inherent challenges associated with ICT adoption in the context of climate change mitigation and adaptation and to offer possible recommendations for stakeholders to utilize technology effectively and sustainably in the global climate response. This study concludes that ICT has a potential role in supporting communication-related to climate change to a variety of audiences. Another report published in 2023 by Azmanet al. (2023) focuses on the Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry (MAFI) efforts to address climate change and food security. Finally, being a developing country, Malaysian authorities must be able to maintain agricultural stability.

Aims and Objectives

This aims research to empirically test the influence of socio-economic model development on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy through ICT implementation. The following main objectives are to be determined in this research:

1) to empirically test ICT implementation in mediating the influence of socio-economic model development on adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change.

2) to empirically test ICT implementation in moderating the influence of socio-economic model development on adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change.

The research findings are expected to benefit stakeholders and related parties involved in issues of climate change at the national and international levels. The research findings also encourage improvements in a strategy of adaptation and mitigation for climate change to the development of socio-economic models through ICT implementation.

Methodology

The empirical study technique employed a descriptive method combined with a quantitative approach. This study on the topic of climate change is for the Southeast Asia region, especially Indonesia and Malaysia.

In collecting data for this empirical research online survey techniques were used, and the sampling technique was purposive random sampling. Finally, 100 valid samples were selected from 150 community respondents who comprehend the topics of climate change in Indonesia and Malaysia.

The Likert scale (scale of 5) is a quantitative method used to measure the study’s variables. The software program utilized for data processing and analysis is called SmartPLS. There are two types of empirical tests for research models and testing research hypotheses. The proposed conceptual model was tested using both inner and outer models. In this data analysis, measurements for Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability must have a value of > 0.7, which indicates the variable is valid and reliable. To test the hypothesis, a T-Statistic > 1,960 value and a P-value < 0.05 were employed (Creswell & Creswell, 2023).

In addition, the important role of ICT implementation and its climate change impact and other climate change issues relevant to sustainability and climate change (Grunfeld & Houghton, 2013). With climate change, a strategy is needed to mitigate and adapt (Tunji-Olayeniet al., 2019).

This model of research which provides the hypothesis (Fig. 4):

Fig. 4. Research model and development of hypotheses.

The socio-economic model, which is a combination of social development and economic development, indicates government, environmental, education, and healthcare factors (Qureshi, 2005). The development of socio-economic models will have an effect on ICT implementation (Qureshi, 2005). Next, the hypothesis can be developed:

• H1: The socio-economic model influences ICT Implementation.

The important role of ICT implementation and its impact on climate change and other issues relevant to sustainability and climate change (Grunfeld & Houghton, 2013). With climate change, a strategy is needed to mitigate and adapt (Tunji-Olayeniet al., 2019). Ajwang and Nambiro (2022), ICT implementation techniques effectively support overcoming climate change by implementing mitigation and adaptation measures. The following hypothesis can be developed:

• H2: ICT implementation influences the strategy of climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Rublevet al. (2021) stated that the socio-economic model is a sustainable development that can be related to the problem of changes in sustainability and the social environment in a certain area. The following hypothesis can be developed:

• H3: Socio-Economic model influences the strategy of climate change adaptation and mitigation.

The development of socio-economic models will have an effect on ICT implementation (Qureshi, 2005). Innovation in the implementation of ICT has been recognized as an effective strategy to combat climate change by implementing mitigation and adaptation measures that increase human resilience. Based on these two statements, the following hypothesis can be developed:

• H4: ICT implementation mediates the influence of socio-economic models on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.

The development of socio-economic models will have an effect on ICT implementation (Qureshi, 2005). Innovation in the implementation of ICT is expected to strengthen climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.

• H5: ICT implementation moderates the influence of socio-economic models on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.

The research’s novel findings are those of hypotheses H4 and H5.

Finding and Analysis

The study and data processing results in this research include model and hypothesis test findings. The data processing results and the conclusions gained from this study’s findings are then addressed.

Model Test Results

First, determine the outer model test outcomes. The Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability values provide the findings for assessing the validity and reliability of the study variables. Findings from the execution and data processing of SmartPLS 3.2.7, which was also utilized in the Hussainet al. (2018) study. Table I demonstrates the validity and reliability of each variable utilized in the study.

Table I. Testing of The Variable’s Validity and Reliability

Variables	Cronbach’s alpha	Rho_A	Composite reliability	Avarage variance extract
Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy	0.941	0.956	0.955	0.809
ICT implementation	0.848	0.848	0.899	0.692
Socio-economic model development	0.861	0.863	0.907	0.710
Moderatig effect-1	1.000	.000	1.000	1.000

Table II displays the output outer loading measurement results from the data processed with smartPLS. From the results of the Inner Model Test, as shown in Table I, by looking at the outer loading value, the biggest influence on the Socio-Economic Model variable is the Environment indicator, amounting to 0.909. In the ICT Implementation variable, the largest indicator is Competitiveness and Access to Market, namely 0.900, and the Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategy variable is the Green Energy indicator (outer loading of 0.955).

Table II. Output from Research Indicator of Outer Loadings

Variables/Indicators	Socio economis model	ICT implementation	Climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy	Modeating effect-1
X1	0.865
X2	0.909
X3	0.862
X4	0.724
Z1		0.880
Z2		0.900
Z3		0.722
Z4		0.806
Y1			0.955
Y2			0.932
Y3			0.941
Y4			0.851
Y4			0.808
ME-1 =				0.012

Fig. 5 presents a summary of the Outcome of Outer Loading in Path Analysis within the measurement model.

Fig. 5. The outcome of outer loading in path analysis.

Measurements of the R-square values obtained can be shown in Table III.

Table III. The R-square Values

Variables	R-square	R-square adjusted
ICT implementation	0.903	0.902
Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy	0.827	0.822

The value of R-square

The prediction ability of the structural model is evaluated using the R-square value. It’s a sign of how many construct variables the study model can account for. Instead of calculating a formula, the R-square value is derived from the outcomes of data processing using smartPLS software. Table IV displays these R-square value findings. The endogenous R-square value’s measurement results are used to compute the R-square value. Akteret al. (2011) found that if there is a size effect, R-square = 0.02 has a small effect, 0.13 has a medium effect size, and > 0.36 has a significant effect size. The climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy variable has an R-square value of 0.817, whereas the ICT Implementation variable has an R-square value of 0.903. Given that the R-square value is greater than 0.30, it is clear that both of them fall into the extremely high effect category. Another finding from the R-square value indicates that socioeconomic model development difficulties have a 90.3% influence on ICT implementation. Other factors that account for 9.7% of the variation in ICT implementation, are not covered in this study. Likewise, 81.7% of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies are influenced by the development of socio-economic models, the application of ICT, and mediation effects; 18.3% were impacted by additional variables not included in the analysis.

Table IV. Findings from Hypothesis Testing Results

Variable	T-statistic	P-values
Socio economic model development → ICT implementation	116.456	0.000*
ICT implementation → Climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy	10.826	0.000*
Socio economic model development → Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy	4.769	0.000*
Socio economic model development → ICT implementation → Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy (Mediating effect)	41.003	0.000*
Moderating effect-1 → Climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy (Moderating effect)	0.835	0.404

Hypothesis Test Results

Fig. 6 displays Path Analysis Uses The Bootstrapping Algorithm. The results of this data processing are measured using the Bootstrapping Algorithm and SmartPLS.

Fig. 6. Path analysis uses the bootstrapping algorithm.

All results of hypothesis testing are presented in Table IV.

The following is an explanation of the analysis of the hypothesis testing results:

• H1 identifies the relationship between The socio-economic model development and ICT Implementation As shown in Table IV, the Beta coefficient value measurement is 0.950, the T-statistic value = 116.456 (>1.96), and the P-value is 0.000 (<0.05). So this result means that the socio-economic model development has a positive and significant influence on ICT Implementation.

• H2 identifies the relationship between ICT Implementation and climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy. As shown in Table IV, the Beta coefficient value measurement is 1.606, the T-statistic value = 10.826 (>1.96), and the P-value is 0.000 (<0.05). So, this result means that ICT Implementation has a positive and significant influence on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.

• H3 identifies the relationship between the socio-economic model development and climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy. As shown in Table IV, the beta coefficient value measurement is −0.761, the T-statistic value is 4.769 (>1.96), and the P-value is 0.000 (<0.05). So, these results state that the socio-economic model has a negative and significant influence on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy.

• H4 identifies ICT implementation as mediating the influence of the socio-economic model development on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy. The results of indirect measurements due to the mediation effect show a beta coefficient value of 0.904 and T-statistic = 41.003 (>1.96), and the P-value is 0.000 (<0.05). So this result means that ICT implementation has a role in mediating the influence of the socio-economic model on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy.

• H5 identifies ICT implementation as moderating the influence of the socio-economic model development on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy. The value of the beta coefficient is 0.012, the T-statistic value is 0.835 (<1.96), and the P-value is 0.404 (>0.05). So, these results mean that ICT implementation does not have a role in moderating the influence of socio-economic models on mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change. However, it could be stated that ICT implementation has the potential to strengthen the influence of socio-economic model development on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy. Based on the measurement results, the R-square value for ICT Implementation is greater than the R-square value for adaptation and mitigation strategy for climate change (R1 = 0.903 > R2 = 0.827).

Discussion of the Study’s Findings

This study offers empirical support for the idea that ICT implementation has a significant role in developing socio-economic models to support adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change. The variables in the empirical model created have valid and reliable values. Then, each indicator (outer loading value > 0.5) is valid and reliable.

The most important indicator for the socio-economic model is the environment (X2 = 0.909). The approach through the socio-economic model is specifically to form an environmental ecosystem for adaptation and mitigation in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, for the ICT Implementation variable, the dominant indicators are competitiveness and market access (Z2 = 0.900), meaning that ICT implementation takes into account technology that is competitive and easily accessible for use in the market (wider community). In the climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies variable, the most dominant factor from the results of this study is green energy (Y2 = 0.955). These can state that green energy is a strategy for adapting and mitigating climate change by lowering carbon emissions, lowering dependence on fossil fuels, and encouraging sustainability by utilizing renewable natural resources.

ICT implementation is 90.3% impacted by socioeconomic model development challenges, according to the R-square value. Other factors that contribute to 9.7% of the study’s total influence on ICT implementation are not included here. Then, 81.7% of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies were influenced by the ICT Implementation and Socio-Economic Model Development, as well as the mediating effect; 18.3% turned out to be influenced by several other factors not discussed in this research.

The socio-economic model has a positive and significant effect on ICT Implementation (H1). The findings of this research are in line with and supported by research from Qureshi (2005), which states that the development of socio-economic models will have an effect on ICT implementation. Overall, a holistic and inclusive socio-economic model development can create an environment that supports and accelerates ICT Implementation and provides more benefits for society. The development of socio-economic models can influence people’s access to ICT.

ICT Implementation has a positive and significant influence on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies (H2). The result of this hypothesis is in line with a study from Ajwang and Nambiro (2022), who stated that Innovation in ICT implementation has been recognized as supporting the development of effective strategies to overcome climate change by implementing tactical climate change mitigation and adaptation measures that can increase human resilience. Overall, ICT implementation in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies not only increases efficiency and effectiveness but also strengthens collaboration between stakeholders, increases awareness, and empowers communities to contribute to facing this global challenge. ICT supports innovation in the development of solutions for climate change mitigation, such as renewable energy technologies, energy management systems, and applications for resource efficiency. This can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase resilience to climate change.

The socio-economic model has a negative and significant influence on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies (H3). This result is not in line with the statement of Rublevet al. (2021), which states that the socio-economic model is a sustainable development that can be linked positively to the issue of the strategy of mitigation and adaptation for sustainable climate change in a particular region.

Other main results show that ICT Implementation mediates the influence of socio-economic models on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy (H4). It can be argued that the application of ICT must be supported by the development of socioeconomic models in the process of establishing mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change. Another main result states that ICT implementation is not able to purely moderate the influence of socio-economic models on climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy. However, ICT Implementation possesses the capacity to reinforce the influence of socio-economic model development on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy (H5). The test results state R² (R1 = 0.903 > R² = 0.827). The originality and novelty of this research lie in the two hypothesis findings of H4 and H5.

Implications and Limitations for Research

This research has implications for theoretical and managerial aspects, including the contribution of ICT implementation to socio-economic model development for mitigation and adaptation strategies to climate change. These findings have important theoretical and managerial implications in developing socioeconomic models for ICT-implemented adaptation and mitigation of climate change strategies. This is especially true for individuals who are concerned about climate change, which requires serious attention.

There are some limitations to this paper. First, the results of this research limit the investigation of climate change in Indonesia and Malaysia as part of the regional context of Southeast Asia. Second, the results of this research have limitations in their empirical findings because the sample size is deemed inadequate. Finally, respondent subjectivity remains a limitation of the results using this questionnaire approach.

Conclusions

In summary, this research emphasizes empirical studies regarding the influence of socio-economic model development on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy through ICT implementation.

The empirical study results reveal that ICT Implementation mediates the influence of socio-economic model development on climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy. However, other results further reveal that ICT implementation is not purely moderate but has the ability to improve the impact of socioeconomic model development on mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change. Finally, the main outcome of this study, which included a case study of Indonesia and Malaysia, demonstrated that the development of socioeconomic models influences climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies through ICT implementation. These findings have deeper theoretical and practical implications, especially for scholars and practitioners conducting research related to climate change.

Future mixed methods research related to the development of socio-economic models and the application of ICT can be conducted for this study, thereby ensuring the credibility of the research findings.